Trade-Offs and Synergies between Ecosystem Services Provided by Different Rural Landscape

Ecosystems in rural areas play a crucial role in promoting human well-being and economic development by providing essential resources such as food, water, raw materials, and energy. Furthermore, rural ecosystems offer various services, such as recreational opportunities, climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and environmental mitigation. However, a narrow focus on provisioning services has led to the standardisation of landscapes, decreased levels of biodiversity and reduced ecosystem services in several areas. Moreover, diverse rural landscapes can enrich the provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. While much research has explored the relationship between land use, landscape, and ecosystem services, there is still a need to better understand the trade-offs and synergies between these factors in providing ecosystem services. To address this gap, we conducted an empirical analysis of the perception of ecosystem services provided by different rural landscapes in the Tuscany region. Specifically, we used the concept of morphotypes, which describes 'invariants' that distinguish six different rural landscape typologies in the region. We surveyed 28 experts to identify rural landscape contributions to 17 ecosystem services. Our results provide empirical evidence and insight into the mechanisms necessary to align the provision of ecosystem services by rural landscapes with current and future needs.