Pounding, grinding, transitioning. A use-wear perspective

Much of our current questioning regarding the transition from foraging to farming in the Levant revolves around understanding plant exploitation and its evolution. Because of their common association with plant processing, ground stone tools may be regarded as a critical source of data for investigating this question. This paper first discusses how ground stone tools data and hypotheses regarding their function are incorpo-rated in the various explanatory theories on the transition from foraging to farming in the Levant. One of the models emphasising the importance of social transformation proposes that ground stone tools (especially large mortar) were used to produce prestige foods such as alcohol or bread. This hypothesis is expanded here by suggesting that smaller mortars may indicate the processing of spices/salt and the development of complex cuisines. This article then examines the contribution of use-wear analysis for unraveling ground stone tool functions and assessing the relationship between ground stone tools and plant processing. A 'state of research' of use-wear analysis focused on Levantine grinding and pounding implements is first provided, including an overview of the reference collections available, and a discussion on the type of reconstruction of tool function that use-wear approaches can provide. A synthesis of the main results published for collections ranging from the Natufian to the PPNC/Pre-Halaf periods indicate that while cereals represent an important part of the resources that were processed, ground stone tools are also associated with the grinding of various other materials (including other plants, animal and mineral materials) as well as being used in abrasive tasks, or else used as containers. In addition, this synthesis highlights the fact that grinding slabs (or querns) and handstones largely dominate the use-wear sample, while mortars and pestles have been seldom investigated. To tackle this problem, we present in the last part of this article one of the first experimental programs aimed at exploring use-wear formation on mortars and pestles made of basalt. Detailed descriptions of use-wear characteristics and variability associated with the processing of different plant and animal matters are provided.