Adsorptive behavior of micro(nano)plastics through biochar: Co-existence, consequences, and challenges in contaminated ecosystems

The abundance of micro(nano)plastics in natural ecosystems is a crucial global challenge, as these small-sized plastic particles originate from land-based and marine-based activities and are widely present in marine, freshwater, and ter-restrial ecosystems. Micro(nano)plastics can significantly be reduced through various methods, such as biological, chemical, and physical techniques. Biochar is a low-cost adsorbent and is considered an efficient material and its ap-plication is ecologically effective carbon-negative for remediation of organic and inorganic pollutants. Therefore, this review critically discusses the fate and transport of micro(nano)plastics and their interactions with different biochar in aqueous and column porous media. This review outlines the implications of biochar with the co-existence of micro (nano)plastics in efforts to understand their coupled effects on soil physicochemical properties, microbial communi-ties, and plant growth, along with the removal of heavy metals and other toxic contaminants. In batch experiments, biochar synthesized from various biomasses such as corn straw, hardwood, pine and spruce bark, corncob, and Prosopis juliflora had shown high level of removal efficiency (>90 %) for microplastic adsorption under varying environmental conditions viz., pH, temperature, ionic strength, particle size, and dose due to chemical bonding and electrostatic at-tractions. Increased temperature of the aqueous solutions encouraged higher adsorption, while higher pH and dis-solved organic matter and nutrients may show decreased adsorption capacities for micro(nano)plastics using biochar. Compared to other available physical, chemical, and biological methods, biochar-amended sand filters in col-umn experiments have been very efficient in removing micro(nano)plastics. In saturated column porous media, various microplastics could be inhibited using biochar due to decreased electrostatic repulsion, steric hindrance, and competitive sorption due to humic acid, ionic strength, and cations. Finally, this review provides in-depth insights on further investigations and recommendations for overall micro(nano)plastics removal using biochar-based materials.