Transnational evidence for socio-economic factors affecting income and plantation expansion into natural habitats in smallholder rubber

Rubber production plays a critical role in tropical livelihoods. Identifying factors that balance environmental and socio-economic dimensions of rubber is important for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Here, we assess smallholder data of unprecedented coverage, spanning across 20,000 farmers from Thailand, Indonesia, and Cote d'Ivoire, collected via interviews through the Rubberway initiative. We found that agricultural extension and rubber clonal varieties were associated with higher farmers' income. Absence of land tenure was negatively linked to workers' income. Further, family tenure rights were positively associated with plantation expansion, but, with a lower probability of expanding into natural habitats. Interestingly, higher farmers' income was also linked to expansion, suggesting trade-offs between the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability. Interventions, including agricultural extension and distribution of clonal varieties, need to be care-fully coupled with safeguards on land tenure to prevent further expansion of rubber into natural habitats.