Surface-Activated Pencil Graphite Electrode for Dopamine Sensor Applications: A Critical Review

Pencil graphite electrode (PGE) is an alternative, commercially available, ready-to-use, screen-printed electrode for a wide range of electroanalytical applications. Due to the complex-matrix composition and unpredictable electro-inactive nature of PGE in its native form, a surface pre-treatment/activation procedure is highly preferred for using it as an electroactive working electrode for electroanalytical applications. In this article, we review various surface pre-treatment and modification procedures adopted in the literature with respect to the sensitive and selective detection of dopamine as a model system. Specific generation of the carbon-oxygen functional group, along with partial surface exfoliation of PGE, has been referred to as a key step for the activation. Based on the Scopus((R)) index, the literature collection was searched with the keywords "pencil and dopamine". The obtained data were segregated into three main headings as: (i) electrochemically pre-treated PGE; (ii) polymer-modified PGEs; and (iii) metal and metal nanocomposite-modified PGE. This critical review covers various surface activation procedures adopted for the activation for PGE suitable for dopamine electroanalytical application.