Spatiotemporal variation of human settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to flooding in the lower Yellow River floodplain, East China

Both historical documents and geological archives have recorded frequent extreme flood occurrences between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP (i.e., the late Shang dynasty) in East China. As a flood-prone area, the lower Yellow River floodplain experienced significant changes in human settlement between the Shang (1600-1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE) dynasties. However, the relationship between extreme flood occurrences and changes in human settlement remains unclear. This study aims to examine the spatiotemporal variations of settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to extreme flooding during the late Shang dynasty. The results indicate that settlement distribution and settlement density exhibited clear shifts between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, and the period of the late Shang dynasty was an extreme-flood-rich interval within and around the lower Yellow River floodplain. Because the course of the lower Yellow River was relatively stable during the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, frequent extreme flood occurrences during the late Shang dynasty should change the hydrological settings in key locations along the lower Yellow River course. The northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas were subjected to frequent crevasses from the flooding of the Yellow River between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP. These significant hydrological changes in northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas, combined with frequent wars and conflicts between local tribes and Shang people, likely contributed to a decrease in settlement number and a contraction of settlement distribution. In response to the floods during the late Shang dynasty, ancient inhabitants most likely elevated their dwellings and created the mound sites that exist in the lower Yellow River floodplain today.