The occurrence of heavy metals and antimicrobials in sewage sludge and their predicted risk to soil - Is there anything to fear?

The study assessed the occurrence of legally-monitored heavy metals and unmonitored antimicrobials in sludge from small, medium, large and very large municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and the predicted environmental risk and risk of resistance selection associated with sludge administration to soil. The temporal variations of the studied compounds in sludge and associated risks to soil were determined by sampling over a year.Although the highest concentrations of heavy metals were noted in sludge from the largest WWTP, i.e. from 1.50 mg/kg (mean 1.61 mg/kg) for Cd to 2188 mg/kg (mean 1332 mg/kg) for Zn, the obtained values only reached a few percent of the legal limits. The same WWTP also demonstrated lower concentrations of antimi-crobials compared to the smaller ones. The highest concentrations of antimicrobials, ranging from 24.04 mu g/kg for trimethoprim to 900.24 mu g/kg for tetracycline, were found in the small and medium WWTPs. However, due to lack of regulations at the national and EU levels, the results cannot be compared with legal limits. Principal Component Analysis (PCA), cluster and heatmap analysis separated samples according to WWTP size. Small WWTP demonstrated correlation with antimicrobials (tetracycline, trimethoprim, clindamycin, ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin), while the large and very large WWTP revealed correlations with heavy metals (Cu and Cr).The obtained environmental risk quotients confirmed that the heavy metals did not present a threat, measured either as individual risk quotients (RQenv), cumulative risk (RQcumulative) or risk of mixture of heavy metals (RQmix-metals). In the case of antimicrobials, only tetracycline demonstrated moderate RQenv, RQcumulative and RQmix-antimicrobials in the small WWTP sludge, with values of 0.1 to 1. Our findings highlight the importance of monitoring sewage sludge before soil application, especially from small WWTPs, to reduce the potential envi-ronmental impact of antimicrobials. They also confirm our previous data regarding the environmental risk associated with various toxic compounds, including emerging contaminants, in the sludge from small WWTPs.