Lithium Chloride Exerts Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Effects by Inhibiting Microglial Activation in LPS-Induced Retinal Injury

PURPOSE. To explore the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of lithium chloride (LiCl) in LPS-induced retinal injury.METHODS. In vitro, primary retinal microglia were pretreated with LiCl and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Pro-inflammatory cytokine production, microglial morphologi-cal changes, and inflammation-associated signaling pathways were measured by real-time PCR (RT-PCR), western blotting, and immunofluorescence. Primary retinal neurons were cultured with microglial-derived conditioned medium in the absence or presence of LiCl. Neurotoxicity was evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, and gamma-H2AX detection. In vivo, an endotoxin-induced uveitis mice model was established, and each animal was given intraperitoneal injection of LiCl or vehicle. The retinal inflammatory response was measured by hematoxylin and eosin and fluorescent staining, RT-PCR, western blotting, and TUNEL assay. Retinal thickness and function were evaluated by spectral-domain opti-cal coherence tomography and electroretinography.RESULTS. In vitro, LiCl exerted no obvious toxic effects on microglia and significantly decreased proinflammatory factor (inducible nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6) production, inhibited microglial activation in morphology, and suppressed nuclear factor kappa B (NF -KB), Akt, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) phosphorylation. Moreover, LiCl promoted retinal neuron survival and reduced cell apoptosis and the expression of gamma-H2AX. In vivo, LiCl reduced inflammatory infil-trating cells in the vitreous cavity and decreased proinflammatory cytokine expression in retinas. LiCl suppressed LPS-induced microglial activation, proliferation, and migration. Additionally, LiCl reduced LPS-induced apoptosis of ganglion cells and retinal edema and rescued retinal functional damage.CONCLUSIONS. This study demonstrates that LiCl exerts anti-inflammatory and neuropro-tective effects by inhibiting microglial activation via the PI3K/Akt/NF-KB pathway in LPS-induced retinal injury. LiCl provides a novel and promising option to treat retinal inflammatory diseases.