Hyperhomocysteinemia in Cardiovascular Diseases: Revisiting Observational Studies and Clinical Trials

Thromboembolic manifestations are relatively frequent in patients with intermediate/severe hyperhomocysteinemia (> 30 mu mol/L) related to inherited disorders and deficiencies in vitamin B12 and folate. In contrast, moderate hyperhomocysteinemia (15-30 mu mol/L) is a modest predictor of cardiovascular risk. The recognition of homocysteine as a cardiovascular risk factor has been challenged by some but not all randomized clinical trials. We reviewed the main data of this controversy and formulated conclusions to be translated in clinical practice. Homocysteine-lowering trials have been performed in cardiovascular subjects with moderate but not intermediate/severe hyperhomocysteinemia despite the dose- effect risk association. The first meta-analyses found no benefit and led cardiology societies not recommending homocysteine in the assessment of cardiovascular risk. This guideline challenged the need to diagnose and treat the nutritional and genetic causes of intermediate/major hyperhomocysteinemia and was not revised when larger meta-analyses concluded to a reduced risk of stroke. In a recent observational study, 84% of consecutive cardiovascular patients assessed for homocysteine had intermediate or major hyperhomocysteinemia, which was properly assessed in only half of the cases and related to B12 and/or folate deficiency and Addison/Biermer disease in 55% of these cases.