Review of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes as biological control agents of tephritid fruit flies: current status and a future vision

Several fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae) are invasive pests that damage the quality of fruits in horticultural crops and cause significant value losses worldwide. Management of fruit flies mainly depends on conventional insecticides. Unfortunately, the application of synthetic insecticides has caused environmental pollution, risks for humans and animals, and development of resistance. Furthermore, controlling fruit flies by applying synthetic insecticides is challenging because fruit containing third instars often fall from the tree - subsequently the larvae leave the decaying fruits and pupate in the soil. Consequently, both larvae and pupae are protected from surface-applied insecticides in fruits and soil. So, there is a pressing need for more eco-friendly and selective control measures with new modes of action. Among such measures are entomopathogenic fungi (EPFs) and nematodes (EPNs). I gathered knowledge on past and present research about EPFs and EPNs as biocontrol agents against fruit flies to investigate approaches that may improve their capacities. I also highlighted several recommendations that may help future field studies on the suppression of fruit fly populations by EPFs and EPNs.