Uncovering scale effects on spatial patterns and interactions of multiple cropland ecosystem services

Scale plays a pivotal role in shaping ecological patterns and processes, affecting the features and interrelationships of ecosystem services (ESs). Understanding the scale effects on the spatiotemporal characteristics of ESs and their relationships is crucial for sustainable management of ecosystem and the preservation of human well-being. This is particularly essential for cropland ecosystems, which have multiple functions closely linked to essential human needs. Our study aimed to enhance understanding of the complex interactions among diverse cropland ESs at multiple scales and explore the impact of spatial scale on ESs and their relationships. We conducted our study in the Hangzhou Bay area, which is located in the eastern coastal region of China, using a multi-scale framework that integrated the CASA, RUSLE, and InVEST models. This allowed us to analyze the spatial scale effects and temporal variations in cropland ESs supply, trade-offs/synergies, and bundles. Results showed relatively stable spatial patterns and hot spots of ESs from 2000 to 2019, with a trend towards increased homogeneity and aggregation as scales increased. Trade-offs and synergies between pairwise ESs were stronger and more synergistic at coarser scales. We identified three ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) at all three scales, exhibiting relatively consistent average ES characteristics, but also demonstrating spatial heterogeneity and scale effects on their patterns.