Current status and clinical application of patient-derived tumor organoid model in kidney and prostate cancers

Urological cancers such as kidney, bladder, prostate, and testicular cancers are the most common types of cancers worldwide with high mortality and morbidity. To date, traditional cell lines and animal models have been broadly used to study pre-clinical applications and underlying molecular mechanisms of urological cancers. However, they cannot reflect biological phenotypes of real tissues and clinical diversities of urological cancers in vitro system. In vitro models cannot be utilized to reflect the tumor microenvironment or heterogeneity. Cancer organoids in three-dimensional culture have emerged as a promising platform for simulating tumor microenvironment and revealing heterogeneity. In this review, we summarize recent advances in prostate and kidney cancer organoids regarding culture con-ditions, advantages, and applications of these cancer organoids.