Comprehensive insight into the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, detoxification and extraction of hypaconitine from Aconitum plants

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Hypaconitine (HA), a diterpenoid alkaloid, mainly derived from Aconitum plants such as Acoitum carmichaeli Debx. And Aconitum nagarum Stapf., has recently piqued significant interest among the scientific community given its multifaceted attributes including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, analgesic, and cardio-protective properties.Aim of the study: This review presents a comprehensive exploration of the research advancements regarding the traditional uses, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and toxicity reduction of HA. It aims to provide a thorough understanding of HA's multifaceted properties and its potential applications in various fields.Materials and methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using several prominent databases including PubMed, Web of Science, NCBI, and CNKI. The search was performed using specific keywords such as "hypa-conitine," "heart failure," "anti-inflammatory," "aconite decoction," "pharmacological," "pharmacokinetics," "toxicity," "detoxification or toxicity reduction," and "extraction and isolation." The inclusion of these keywords ensured a comprehensive exploration of relevant studies and enabled the retrieval of valuable information pertaining to the various aspects of HA.Results: Existing research has firmly established that HA possesses a range of pharmacological effects, encom-passing anti-cardiac failure, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-tumor properties. The therapeutic potential of HA is promising, with potential applications in heart failure, ulcerative colitis, cancer, and other diseases. Pharmacokinetic studies suggest that HA exhibits high absorption rates, broad distribution, and rapid meta-bolism. However, toxic effects of HA on the nerves, heart, and embryos have also been observed. To mitigate these risks, HA needs attenuation before use, with the most common detoxification methods being processing and combined use with other drugs. Extraction methods for HA most commonly include cold maceration, soxhlet reflux extraction, and ultrasonic-assisted extraction. Despite the potential therapeutic benefits of HA, further research is warranted to elucidate its anti-heart failure effects, particularly in vivo, exploring aspects such as in vivo metabolism, distribution, and metabolites. Additionally, the therapeutic effects of HA monomers on inflammation-induced diseases and tumors should be validated in a more diverse range of experimental models, while the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of HA should be investigated in greater detail.Conclusion: This review serves to emphasize the therapeutic potential of HA and highlights the crucial need to address its toxicity concerns before considering clinical application. Further research is required to compre-hensively investigate the pharmacological properties of HA, with particular emphasis on its anti-cardiac failure and anti-inflammatory activities. Such research endeavors have the potential to unveil novel treatment avenues for a broad spectrum of diseases.