Embryonic exposure to chloroxylenol induces developmental defects and cardiovascular toxicity via oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in zebrafish

Chloroxylenol is an extensively consumed anti-microbial compound. Since its usage is on the rise due to the coronavirus pandemic and ban on other antimicrobial ingredients, recent studies have suggested the necessity of estimating its potential for ecotoxicity. The detrimental effect of chloroxylenol on zebrafish (Danio rerio) viability has been reported; however, research on the mechanisms underlying its toxicity is quite limited. Therefore, we applied the zebrafish model for elucidating responses against chloroxylenol to predict its toxicity toward human health and ecology. Zebrafish exposed to chloroxylenol (0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/L) at the embryonic stage (from 6 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 96 hpf) showed impaired viability and hatchability, and pathological phenotypes. To address these abnormalities, cellular responses such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis were confirmed via in vivo imaging of a fluorescent dye or measurement of the transcriptional changes related to each response. In particular, developmental defects in the cardiovascular system of zebrafish exposed to 0, 0.5, 1, and 2.5 mg/L of chloroxylenol from 6 to 96 hpf were identified by structural analyses of the system in the flk1: eGFP transgenic line. Additional experiments were conducted using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) to predict the adverse impacts of chloroxylenol on the human vascular system. Chloroxylenol impairs the viability and tube formation ability of HUVECs by modulating ERK signaling. The findings obtained using the zebrafish model provide evidence of the possible risks of chloroxylenol exposure and suggest the importance of more in-depth ecotoxicological studies.