Stability of Learning Disabilities, Cognitive Growth, and L1 in English Learners: A Latent Class and Transition Analysis

This study investigated the stability of latent classes of students with learning disabilities among a heterogeneous sample of elementary-aged children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 284) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish (L1) and English (L2). These same measures were administered 1 and 2 years later (Wave 2 and 3). Two stable latent classes of children at risk for learning disabilities (children with comorbid difficulties and children with high order difficulties) emerged that were distinct from two latent classes (balanced bilinguals, unbalanced bilinguals) of average achievers who varied in second language acquisition. Further, significant growth parameters that uniquely predicted the log-odds identifying latent classes across all status groups were measures of working memory. Finally, the significant contributions of L2 cognitive measures to latent class status were dependent on L1 cognitive performance. The results suggest that statistically distinct and stable latent classes of children with learning disabilities emerge under the umbrella of English language learners and that growth in the executive processes of working memory and first language cognitive performance play an important role in predictions of latent class status. Educational Impact and Implications Statement English learners with Spanish as a first language bring many assets and strengths to L2 (second language) reading and math tasks, which may transfer from their proficiency in their L1 (first language). However, confounds exist in the assessment of children with potential learning problems who are second language learners who could be provided intervention services. Some of these confounds are in part a result of attributing difficulties in second language acquisition and reading/math achievement to the same academic skills and cognitive processes as children with learning disabilities. Other confounds relate to only testing the child in their second language. The present study identified two discrete and stable latent classes of English learning (EL) children at risk for learning disabilities (LD) in both language systems separate from average achieving children who varied in second language acquisition. Key cognitive measures in the predictions of latent class status were naming speed and working memory. Specific cognitive inefficiencies in L1 were related to cognitive inefficiencies in L2. The present findings suggest that there are several limitations of longitudinal studies that assess risk only in the child's second language.