Remediation options to reduce bioaccessible and bioavailable lead and arsenic at a smelter impacted site - consideration of treatment efficacy

In this study, smelter contaminated soil was treated with various soil amendments (ferric sulfate [Fe-2(SO4)(3)], triple superphosphate [TSP] and biochar) to determine their efficacy in immobilizing soil lead (Pb) and arsenic (As). In soils incubated with ferric sulfate (0.6M), gastric phase Pb bioaccessibility was reduced from 1939 +/- 17 mg kg(-1) to 245 +/- 4.7 mg kg(-1), while intestinal phase bioaccessibility was reduced from 194 +/- 25 mg kg(-1) to 11.9 +/- 3.5 mg kg(-1), driven by the formation of plumbojarosite. In TSP treated soils, there were minor reductions in gastric phase Pb bioaccessibility (to 1631 +/- 14 mg kg(-1)) at the highest TSP concentration (6000 mg kg(-1)) although greater reductions were observed in the intestinal phase, with bioaccessibility reduced to 9.3 +/- 2.2 mg kg(-1). Speciation analysis showed that this was primarily driven by the formation of chloropyromorphite in the intestinal phase following Pb and phosphate solubilization in the low pH gastric fluid. At the highest concentration (10% w/w), biochar treated soils showed negligible decreases in Pb bioaccessibility in both gastric and intestinal phases. Validation of bioaccessibility outcomes using an in vivo mouse assay led to similar results, with treatment effect ratios (TER) of 0.20 +/- 0.01, 0.76 +/- 0.11 and 1.03 +/- 0.10 for ferric sulfate (0.6M), TSP (6000 mg kg(-1)) and biochar (10% w/w) treatments. Results of in vitro and in vivo assays showed that only ferric sulfate treatments were able to significantly reduce As bioaccessibility and bioavailability with TER at the highest application of 0.06 +/- 0.00 and 0.14 +/- 0.04 respectively. This study highlights the potential application of ferric sulfate treatment for the immobilization of Pb and As in co-contaminated soils.