Holocene summer temperature reconstruction based on a chironomid record from Sierra Nevada, southern Spain

Obtaining accurate temperature reconstructions from the past is crucial in understanding the consequences of changes in external climate forcings, such as orbital-scale insolation or multidecadal to centennial-scale vari-ability on the climate system and the environment. In addition, these reconstructions help in comprehending the amplitude of natural temperature changes in the past, which can assist in evaluating the amplitude and rate of recent anthropogenic global warming. Here we present the first detailed Holocene mean July air temperature reconstruction based on chironomid assemblages from sediments retrieved from Laguna de Rio Seco, an alpine lake in Sierra Nevada, southern Spain. Coldest climate conditions are recorded during the last glacial maximum and the last deglaciation. Warming occurred in the Early Holocene and warmest summer temperature conditions and the Holocene thermal maximum (HTM) occurred in the interval roughly between 9000 and 7200 cal yr BP, concurrent with summer insolation maxima. Rapid cooling of-1.5 degrees C occurred after the warmest maximum and between-7200 and 6500 cal yr BP, and temperatures stabilized between-6500 and 3000 cal yr BP. A further cooling began-3000 cal yr BP and culminated with coldest summer conditions during the Dark Ages (DA) and Little Ice Age (LIA) at-1550 cal yr BP (-400 CE) and-200 cal yr BP (-1750 CE), respectively. This cooling temperature trend was interrupted by warmer conditions during the Iberian-Roman Humid Period (IRHP)-2000 cal yr BP and during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) at-1000 cal yr BP. Our reconstruction shows a greater than two-degree cooling during the Middle and Late Holocene, agreeing with global mean surface temperature (GMST) reconstructions. Modern climate warming (MCW) during summer exceeds the two-degree Celsius forecasted for the future due to anthropogenic greenhouse gases, suggesting that recent warming is amplified at high elevations. Alpine environments and the biodiversity contained there are thus in danger if the observed temperature trend continues in the next decades.