A novel application of thallium isotopes in tracing metal(loid)s migration and related sources in contaminated paddy soils

Thallium (Tl) is a highly toxic heavy metal, which is harmful to plants and animals even in trace amounts. Migration behaviors of Tl in paddy soils system remain largely unknown. Herein, Tl isotopic compositions have been employed for the first time to explore Tl transfer and pathway in paddy soil system. The results showed considerably large Tl isotopic variations (epsilon Tl-205 = -0.99 +/- 0.45 similar to 24.57 +/- 0.27), which may result from interconversion between Tl(I) and Tl(III) under alternative redox conditions in the paddy system. Overall higher epsilon Tl-205 values of paddy soils in the deeper layers were probably attributed to abundant presence of Fe/Mn (hydr)oxides and occasionally extreme redox conditions during alternative dry-wet process which oxidized Tl(I) to Tl(III). A ternary mixing model using Tl isotopic compositions further disclosed that industrial waste contributed predominantly to Tl contamination in the studied soil, with an average contribution rate of 73.23%. All these findings indicate that Tl isotopes can be used as an efficient tracer for fingerprinting Tl pathway in complicated scenarios even under varied redox conditions, providing significant prospect in diverse environmental applications.