Implementation characteristics of father-inclusive interventions in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review

Although prior reviews have documented the effectiveness of engaging male caregivers in early childhood interventions, little is known about how these interventions have been designed and implemented to reach, engage, and support male caregivers in low-resource global settings. We searched five bibliographic databases for intervention studies that engaged male caregivers to improve nurturing care for children under 5 years of age in low- and middle-income countries. Forty-four articles met the inclusion criteria, which represented 33 interventions. Fathers specifically were the most common type of male caregivers targeted in these interventions. The majority of interventions invited fathers to participate alongside their female partners. Community-based peer-groups were the most common delivery model. Most interventions used the same program structure for fathers as applied to mothers, with few considering whether implementation adaptations were needed for men. Intervention curricula were multicomponent and largely targeted child nutrition, health, and couples' relationships. A minority of programs addressed parenting, psychosocial wellbeing, violence prevention, gender attitudes, or economic support. Behavior change techniques were limited to interactive counseling and peer learning. Male caregivers remain missing from caregiving interventions for young children. A greater focus on implementation research can inform better inclusion, engagement, and support for male caregivers in nurturing care interventions.