Methods for Physically Structuring Meat Analogs: Challenges and Perspectives

Extrusion is the standard process for producing meat alternatives. However, it is unsuitable for small scales, involves expressive energy expenditures, generates tasteless products, and degrades protein matrices. A systematic search of articles and patents identified strategies for alternatively elaborating anisotropic meat substitutes: spinning techniques; freezing-thawing; transglutaminase polymerization; additive manufacturing (3D-printing, lamination); konjac gum or gluten structuration; polysaccharides-proteins agglutination; coagulation with simultaneous shearing; and microwave cooking with simultaneous shearing. Main protein sources involve soy, pulses, mushrooms, non-meat animal proteins, and zein. Freezing-thawing, additive manufacturing, and microwave processing stand out as the most competitive techniques regarding sensory, nutritional, and economic aspects.