A wavelet-based model of trade openness with ecological footprint in the MINT economies

The acceleration of ecological footprint and trade openness are two major hot subjects that have received much attention in recent years. Thus, the current study evaluates the interrelationship between ecological footprint and trade openness in Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey (MINT) nations. The study utilized time series and panel analysis between 1961 and 2018. The research provides thorough information regarding this relationship for various time and frequency sub-periods by employing the partial wavelet, wavelet coherence, and multiple wavelet coherence techniques. The results from the wavelet coherence show that in the short and medium term, there is significant co-movement between ecological footprint and trade openness for Mexico and Indonesia, with trade openness driving ecological footprint positively at high and medium frequencies. Moreover, at all frequencies, trade openness drives ecological footprint positively for Nigeria and Turkey. The study validates that trade openness leads to the ecological footprint hypothesis in each nation. Furthermore, the multiple and partial wavelet coherence undoubtedly strengthens the occurrences spotted through the wavelet coherence in each nation. Based on these findings, policy recommendations are put forward.