Interactive effects of temperature and salinity on toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles towards the marine mussel Xenostrobus securis

Growing application of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) in global market has led to the concern over their potential environmental impacts. Filter feeders like mussels are prone to nanoparticles due to their superior filter-feeding ability. Temperature and salinity of coastal and estuarine seawaters often vary seasonally and spatially, and their changes may jointly influence physicochemical properties of ZnO-NPs and thus their toxicity. This study, therefore, aimed to inves-tigate the interactive effect of temperatures (15, 25 and 30 center dot C) and salinities (12 and 32 PSU) on physicochemical prop-erties and sublethal toxicity of ZnO-NPs towards a marine mussel Xenostrobus securis, and to compare that with the toxicity caused by Zn2 +/- ions (zinc sulphate heptahydrate). The results revealed increased particle agglomeration but decreased zinc ion release of ZnO-NPs at the highest temperature and salinity condition (30 center dot C and 32 PSU). After exposure, ZnO-NPs significantly reduced survival, byssal attachment rate and filtration rate of the mussels at high temperature and salinity (30 center dot C and 32 PSU). Glutathione S-transferase and superoxide dismutase activities in the mussels were suppressed at 30 center dot C. These aligned with the augmented zinc accumulation with increasing tempera-ture and salinity which could likely be attributable to increased particle agglomeration of ZnO-NP and enhanced intrin-sic filtration rate of the mussels under these conditions. Together with the observed lower toxic potency of Zn2 +/- compared to ZnO-NPs, our results suggested that the mussels might accumulate more zinc through particle filtration under higher temperature and salinity, eventually resulting in elevated toxicity of ZnO-NPs. Overall, this study dem-onstrated the necessity to consider the interactive effect of environmental factors such as temperature and salinity dur-ing the toxicity assessment of nanoparticles.