The occurrence and fate of antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in water treatment processes: A review

The recent surfacing of novelty viruses such as the coronavirus (COVID-19) and other conventional viruses have resulted in a significant increase in the use of pharmaceuticals, particularly antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). This is attributed to their design to modulate the endocrine and immune system of the body. Subsequently, these contaminants of emerging concern are introduced into water-receiving bodies through animal and human excretion, unregulated disposal, and anthropogenic activities, resulting in their oc-currence in trace amounts. Despite their occurrence in trace amounts, these classes of emerging contaminants can be persistent or only partially degraded during water treatment processes; hence they have eluded conventional wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) technologies. Moreover, long-term exposure to pharmaceutical compounds poses serious health risks to human and aquatic flora and fauna due to their bioaccumulation. Hence, the cur-rent study provides a holistic review on the occurrence of selected antibiotics and NSAIDs in surface water and their fate in wastewater treatment processes. This review provides an overview of the findings reported in the literature on the detection frequency and quantity of selected pharmaceuticals in WWTP influent and effluent streams. Furthermore, the review highlights the findings reported in the literature on the potential application of bioremediation processes, advanced oxidation processes, and chitosan-based adsorbents on pharmaceutical remediation. Finally, the study identifies knowledge gaps in the reported technologies with future perspectives.