Understanding the contexts of effectiveness of adaptation to climate change and variability: a qualitative study of smallholder farmers in central Ethiopia

Although most studies showed the positive impact of climate change adaptation on farmers' livelihoods, not all strategies are effective. Based on a qualitative study of smallholder farmers in central Ethiopia, this study examined the roles of contextual factors in contributing to or constraining the effectiveness of adaptation strategies. The results show that (i) strategies heavily reliant on rainfall were less effective; (ii) farmers with fatalistic attitudes utilized survival-oriented and low-return strategies, which were less effective to protect them from the effects of climate change and variability (CCV); (iii) farmers who had access to livelihood assets effectively responded to CCV through diversification of adaptation strategies and involvement in high-return strategies; (iv) Inadequate extension services, inefficient supply of farm inputs, and limited inclusivity of poor farmers undermined the roles of formal institutions in supporting effective adaptation. The findings attest to the importance of thoroughly understanding the wider contexts in which adaptation strategies are implemented to ensure their effectiveness. Building the adaptive capacity of farmers through pro-poor measures opens opportunities for engagement in high-return adaptation strategies, thereby promoting the building of sustainable livelihoods by all farmers.