Parthenolide alleviates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation via MAPK/TRIM31/NLRP3 signaling to ameliorate cognitive disorder

Background and purpose: Neuroinflammation, mainly mediated by microglia, is involved in the evolution of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Parthenolide (PTL) has diverse pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress. However, whether PTL can modulate microglia-mediated neuroinflammation to improve cognitive impairment in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mice is unclear.Methods: LPS/IFN-gamma-induced BV2 and HMC3 microglia were used for in vitro experiments; the roles of PTL on anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, phagocytic activity, and neuroprotection were assessed by inflammatory cy-tokines assays, dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, phagocytosis, and cell counting kit-8 assays. Western blot and immunofluorescence(IF) were used to examine related molecular mechanisms. In vivo, IF and western blot were applied in LPS-treated wild-type (WT) mice and APP/PS1 mice models. The Morris water maze test was performed to evaluate the effects of PTL on cognitive disorders.Results: In vitro, PTL dramatically suppressed proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1 beta, and TNF-alpha release and increased IL-10 levels. Moreover, PTL decreased reactive oxygen species and restored microglial phagocytic activities via the AKT/MAPK/ NF-kappa B signaling pathway. Importantly, we discovered that PTL obviously enhanced TRIM31 expression and siTRIM31 elevated proinflammatory cytokine levels. Furthermore, we deter-mined that the anti-inflammatory role of PTL was mostly TRIM31/NLRP3 signaling-dependent. In vivo, PTL alleviated microgliosis and astrogliosis in LPS-treated WT and APP/PS1 mice. Additionally, PTL significantly ameliorated memory and learning deficits in cognitive behaviors.Conclusions: PTL improved cognitive and behavioral dysfunction, inhibited neuroinflammation, and showed potent anti-neuroinflammatory activity and neuroprotective effects by improving the MAPK/TRIM31/NLRP3 axis. Our study emphasized the therapeutic potential of PTL for improving cognitive disorders during AD progression.