Quantitative 4D imaging of biomechanical regulation of ventricular growth and maturation

Abnormal cardiac development is intimately associated with congenital heart disease. During development, a sponge-like network of muscle fibers in the endocardium, known as trabeculation, becomes compacted. Biomechanical forces regulate myocardial differentiation and proliferation to form trabeculation, while the molecular mechanism is still enigmatic. Biomechanical forces, including intracardiac hemodynamic flow and myocardial contractile force, activate a host of mo-lecular signaling pathways to mediate cardiac morphogenesis. While mechanotransduction pathways to initiate ventricular trabeculation is well studied, deciphering the relative impor-tance of hemodynamic shear vs. mechanical contractile forces to modulate the transition from trabeculation to compaction requires advanced imaging tools and genetically tractable animal models. For these reasons, the advent of 4D multi -scale light-sheet imaging and complementary multiplex live imaging via micro-CT in the beating zebrafish heart and live chick embryos, respectively. Thus, this review highlights the complementary animal models and advanced imaging needed to elucidate the mechanotransduction underlying cardiac ventricular development.