Spatiotemporal evolution of land cover changes and landscape ecological risk assessment in the Yellow River Basin, 2015-2020

The Yellow River Basin (YRB), which has faced severe ecological issues since ancient times, is one of the largest and most difficult-to-govern basins in the world. Recently, all provincial governments within the basin have individually enacted a series of measures to protect the Yellow River; however, the lack of central governance has inhibited efforts. Since 2019, the government has comprehensively managed the YRB, improving the governance to unprecedented levels; however, evaluations of the YRB's overall ecological status remain lacking. Using high-resolution data from 2015 to 2020, this study illustrated major land cover transitions, evaluated the correlated overall ecological status of the YRB via the landscape ecological risk index, and analyzed the relationship be-tween risk and landscape structure. The results showed that the (1) main land cover types in the YRB in 2020 are farmland (17.58%), forestland (31.96%), and grassland (41.42%), with urban land accounting for 4.21%. Some social factors were significantly related to changes in major land cover types (e.g., from 2015 to 2020, forest and urban lands have increased by 2.27% and 10.71%, grassland and farmland decreased by 2.58% and 0.63%, respectively). (2) Landscape ecological risk improved, albeit with fluctuations (high in the northwest, low in the southeast). (3) Ecological restoration and governance were imbalanced since no obvious changes were observed in the western source region of the Qinghai Province (Yellow River). (4) Finally, positive impacts of artificial re-greening showed slight lags as the detected improvements in NDVI were not recorded for approximately 2 years. These results can facilitate environmental protection and improve planning policies.