Power supplies for cardiovascular implantable electronic devices

The use of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) has proved to be the most successful device-based therapy to reduce morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular disease over decades. The evolution of power supplies always promotes the development of CIEDs from historical perspectives. However, with the increased demands of therapy energy, modern CIEDs still face huge challenges in terms of longevity, size, and reliability of power supplies. Recent advances in batteries and novel energy devices have provided promising approaches to improve power supplies and enhance the therapeutic capabilities of CIEDs. In this review, we will summarize the therapy energy in different types of CIEDs tailored to specific cardiovascular diseases and discuss the design criterion of implantable batteries. After overviewing the evolution of batteries, we will discuss emerging cutting-edge power technologies, including new battery systems, wearable power management platforms, wireless energy transfer, and leadless and unsealed devices.