The use of pharmacological and non-pharmacological cognitive enhancers in the Portuguese population

The use of cognitive enhancement has been rising in recent years. While this increase is well-documented, most existing research primarily focuses on university students. Aims: This study aimed to assess the types and frequencies of cognitive enhancer use in the Portuguese population, the cognitive functions that participants intended to enhance, and the specific contexts of usage. Method: A total of 623 Portuguese people completed an online survey distributed through social media and sent by web mailing. The survey focused on the frequency of cognitive enhancer use, the cognitive functions participants aimed to enhance, and the contexts in which enhancers were used. Results: Except for electronic devices, the most common frequency of use for all cognitive enhancers was never. Among the cognitive enhancers that were used, the most prevalent were electronic devices, coffee, and sleep hygiene. There is a negative correlation between the participants' age and sleep hygiene and specific music for cognitive enhancement. Female participants were more likely to use natural products, specific foods, and supplements, while male participants were more likely to use physical activity and energy drinks. The most frequently enhanced cognitive function was attention, followed by memory. University students tended to enhance attention more frequently than employed participants and work-study participants. During more demanding periods of work or study, 21.1 % of participants always used strategies to enhance cognition, 24.6 % used them often, and 22.5 % never used them. Discussion: Overall, the use of cognitive enhancement strategies in Portugal seems to be limited. However, achieving a more accurate quantification requires employing representative sampling techniques within the broader population. Among the various strategies used, non-pharmacological enhancers predominate. Coffee stands out as one of the more frequently used strategies. The consumption of prescription drugs for cognitive enhancement is very low, contrasting with studies in other countries.