The effects of hydroxychloroquine-induced oxidative stress on fracture healing in an experimental rat model

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) sulfate causes oxidative stress (OS) and its effect on fracture healing in an experimental rat model.Materials and methods: In this experimental study, open diaphyseal femur fractures were induced in 24 eight-week-old male rats (mean weight: 225 +/- 25 g; range, 200 to 250 g) and then fixed with K-wire. The rats were divided into four groups: HCQ-2, control-2 (C-2), HCQ-4, and control-4 (C-4). During the study period, rats in the HCQ groups received an HCQ solution (160 mg/kg/day), whereas rats in the control groups received saline. The HCQ-2 and C-2 groups were sacrificed on the 14(th) day, and the HCQ-4 and C-4 groups were sacrificed on the 28(th) day. After sacrifice, malondialdehyde levels induced by OS were calculated for each rat, and fracture healing was evaluated radiographically, histomorphometrically, histopathologically, and immunohistochemically.Results: Malondialdehyde levels were higher in the HCQ groups than in the control groups (p<0.05). Hydroxychloroquine caused OS in rats. The ratio of total callus diameter to femur bone diameter was lower in HCQ groups compared to control groups (p<0.05). No differences were observed when comparing radiological and histological healing results between the control and HCQ groups. Alkaline phosphatase levels were lower in the HCQ-4 group than the C-4 group at week four (p<0.05), although osteocalcin and osteopontin levels did not differ between groups (p>0.05). Oxidative stress had no adverse effects on histologic healing outcomes and osteoblast functions. Cathepsin K and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-5b levels were higher in the HCQ-4 group than in the C-4 group (p<0.05). While the number and function of osteoclasts increased due to OS in callus tissue, a decrease in the number of chondrocytes was observed.Conclusion: Hydroxychloroquine-induced OS increases the number and function of osteoclasts and decreases the number of hypertrophic chondrocytes and endochondral ossification but has no significant effect on mid-late osteoblast products and histological fracture healing scores.