Challenges and Prospects of Sodium-Ion and Potassium-Ion Batteries for Mass Production

The exponential growth of the lithium-ion (LIB) market is causing a significant disparity between the supply chain and demand for its resources. In this regard, sodium-ion and potassium-ion batteries are promising alternatives to LIBs due to their low cost. However, the larger sizes of Na+ and K+ ions create challenges that prevent them from achieving energy densities comparable to LIBs while maintaining an acceptable cycle life. In this perspective, the aim is to evaluate the status of Na-ion and K-ion batteries and the challenges associated with them on both fundamental and commercial levels. The focus is on the structural instability arising from phase transitions during cycling, intricate chemical degradation processes, and potential avenues for enhancing their performance with a specific goal of improving their viability for grid-scale energy storage. Materials production and abundance limitations for the chemistries of the state-of-the-art materials and account for critical parameters from both the perspective of researchers and investors are analyzed. This analysis aims to provide insights into the strategic trade-offs required to effectively implement the technology in real-world applications, such as grid-scale storage and other areas. Furthermore, the utilization of metals with low or no supply-chain problems as an important aspect of these trade-offs is considered. The challenges that must be overcome for the ubiquitous adoption of sodium-ion and potassium-ion batteries are discussed, with grid-scale energy storage in mind, including structural and interfacial stability of cathodes, electrolyte stability window, and cost-effectiveness in producing the materials at the necessary scale.image