Soil conservation of sloping farmland in China: History, present, and future

In China, sloping farmland accounts for one-third of its total farmland, supporting similar to 330 million mountain people's livelihoods. Despite its long history of using soil conservation measures for reducing soil loss on sloping farmland, no comprehensive evaluation has ever been performed on their effectiveness. In this study, we reviewed the soil conservation measures on sloping farmland in China from similar to 2500 years ago to the present and examined their effectiveness under current and projected climate change scenarios based on 6909 plot-scale observations. For the sloping farmland across China, the average soil loss rate is 14.47 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1), with a quarter of the observed values exceeding the maximum tolerable soil loss rate (10 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1)). Soil conservation measures can reduce soil loss by similar to 80%, with the highest effectiveness for the combination of biological and engineering measures (reduced by similar to 86%), followed by biological measures (reduced by similar to 84%) and engineering measures (reduced by similar to 82%) separately. However, the effectiveness of soil conservation measures shows a significant decrease in the farmland with a slope above 15 degrees or a single rainfall event > 25 mm. The effectiveness of currently applied soil conservation measures was also compared under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) 1, 2, and 5 in 2050, and their effectiveness is expected to decrease on over 27% of the sloping farmland. In particular, under the SSP1 scenario, the effectiveness of soil conservation measures is projected to diminish in 70%, 54%, and 54% of sloping farmland in Northeast China, Sichuan Basin and surrounding regions, and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, respectively, due to changes in rainfall, highlighting the need to consider the impact of climate change when implementing soil conservation measures. Overall, this study provides useful information for scientific strategies on the construction, management, and maintenance of soil conservation measures to control soil loss on sloping farmland.