Household responsibility and commuting: the spatial constraints of employees and self-employed rural-to-urban migrant women in China-the case of Nanjing

There are ongoing debates on whether household responsibilities limit women's commuting behaviors. At present, no relevant study exists on rural-to-urban migrant women, and few investigations distinguish between employees and the self-employed. This empirical study focuses on rural-to-urban migrant women in China, examining the impact of household responsibilities on commuting. Using regression analysis on data from 2204 questionnaires distributed in Nanjing in 2021, results reveal that contrary to prior findings, rural-to-urban migrant female employees have longer average commuting times than their male counterparts. This is related to gendered occupational segregation and housing availability. No evidence suggests family migration or childcare affects commuting times for female employees. Among self-employed rural-to-urban migrant workers, gender has no significant effect on average commuting times. Family migration increases commute time for self-employed women but not for men. The study reveals longer commutes for female migrant employees and how gendered occupational segregation, housing, and household responsibilities impact gender commuting dynamics differently in employed and self-employed migrant workers. The study highlights the importance of the intersection of gender and class and the distinction between employees and the self-employed in urban studies.