Exposure of children to glyphosate in Morocco: Urinary levels and predictors of exposure

Glyphosate is one of the most frequently used organophosphorus plant protection products worldwide, and has recently been classified as probably carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research and Cancer (IARC). We aimed to evaluate the urinary levels of glyphosate and its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in Moroccan children, to identify the main predictors and to perform a risk assessment. Data was collected during a cross sectional study of 48 children from an intensive agricultural area. Measurements included a questionnaire on life-style, socio-demographic and herbicide exposures. Urinary glyphosate and AMPA were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Overall, glyphosate and AMPA were detected in 73% and 75% of urine samples, respectively. The mean concentrations were 0.97 mu g L-1 (2.06 mu g/gcreatinine) for glyphosate and 0.79 mu g L-1 (1.52 mu g/gcreatinine) for AMPA. Children younger than 5 years had a higher AMPA and glyphosate urine concentration (mean = 2.24 mu g L-1; estimation coefficient (EC) = 1.39; 95% CI: 0.54-2.24) (mean = 4.05 mu g L-1; EC = 2.92; 95% CI: 1.68-4.15), respectively, than children aged 6-12. Children living near the pesticide spraying fields (<50 m) had 14.91 mu g L-1 and 2.35 mu g L-1 more glyphosate and AMPA, respectively, than children living in urban counties (95% CI: 8.14-20.91 for glyphosate and 95% CI: 0.55-4.14 for AMPA). AMPA concentration varied significantly with the source of drinking water, AMPA was higher among children that used water from open water sources (mean = 1.49 mu g L-1; EC = 2.98; 95% CI/0.67-5.78) compared to those using water from closed water sources. There were also non-significant associations found, such as total household net income, current parental job description, and dietary intake. With the regard to the health risk assessment, estimated daily intake (EDIs), hazard quotient (HQs), and a hazard index (HI) were calculated. The GMs of EDI were 4.38 and 2.26 mu g/kg of body weight BW/day for glyphosate and AMPA, respectively. The HQs were calculated considering 0.5 mg/kg BW/day as an acceptable daily intake (ADI), which EFSA has established as a health -based reference value for both analytes. The value obtained were lower than 1, and therefore, low health risk due to glyphosate and AMPA was expected for the target population under the study. This study provides further evidence on factors associated with glyphosate exposure, especially in developing countries.