Recent trends in the electrochemical sensors on fi- and calcium channel blockers for hypertension and angina pectoris: A comprehensive review

Stress, ingrained human behaviors, an inactive lifestyle, and poor dietary decisions are the primary causes of hypertension and the related coronary artery disease (CAD), which is also commonly referred to as angina pectoris. Effective high blood pressure (BP) treatment represents a substantial approach to reducing the burden of hypertension-related cardiovascular and renal diseases. A group of drugs known as fi-blockers and calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are frequently used to treat diseases like hypertension (high blood pressure), cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure. For efficient therapeutic use and to reduce potential side effects, fi-blocker concentration monitoring is essential. Chromatographic techniques are employed in a wide range to detect fi-blockers and CCBs without interference, among other analytical methods that have been described. For the detection of fi-blockers and CCBs, electrochemical sensors provide numerous benefits including sensitivity, selectivity, rapidity, and cost-effectiveness. These sensors can help with patient monitoring in clinical settings, ensuring that the prescription fi-blocker dosage is within the therapeutic range. Since fi-blockers are frequently consumed by people, the contamination can be occurred through discharge of wastewater. The presence and measurement of fi-blockers in water samples enables researchers to evaluate potential risks to aquatic life and public health. In this regard, this review addresses recently developed electrochemical (voltammetric) methodologies and measurement protocols for the determination of both fi-blockers and CCBs in pharmaceuticals, biological fluids, and environmental samples. Additionally, this review also provides an overview of the various advanced nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, polymeric structures, zeolite materials, ionic liquids, perovskite semiconductor-based materials, MXenes, Quantum dots, Nano MIPs and various dimensional materials applied to fabricate chemically modified electrodes/electrochemical sensors to determine the 0-blockers and CCBs. Moreover supplied are tables listing the analyte, modified electrode, measurement method, measuring medium pH, linear detection range (LDR), limit of detection (LOD) and sensitivity as they are cited in the original research. Furthermore, important conclusions are made from the published reports in the last decade and some future perspectives are also suggested.