Mapping cultural ecosystem services provision: An integrated model of recreation and ecotourism opportunities

Recreation and ecotourism opportunities are significant and complex Cultural Ecosystem Services, including various ecological and socio-economic aspects. Therefore, an integrated approach is needed to address these service complexities to help inform recreation and tourism planning and management. This study aims to develop an integrated model to map and assess Recreation Opportunity Ecosystem Services (ROES) in the north of Iran involving various ecosystem attributes and indicators. The methodological framework followed in this study allowed us to identify the spatial distribution pattern of recreation ES supply and demand in the study area. Particularly, this study explored the spatial mismatches between the capacity of ecosystems to provide recrea-tional services and societal needs by applying a supply-demand ratio indicator. To predict the future pattern of recreation ES provision in the study area, two scenarios were performed. The results showed that the areas with the highest ROES provision account for only a small share of the study area where there is a high ecosystem potential to fulfill human demand for recreation ES. The results of the mismatch analysis revealed that urban and rural areas showed a shortfall in supply, whereas the areas with a high degree of naturalness exhibited an excess supply than demand. The hot spot analysis performed for two current and future scenarios showed that the areas of recreation ES hot spots considerably decreased due to population growth and land use change in the study area over a 30-year period. Our findings can provide insights for decision-making and spatial planning to maintain recreation ES and the benefits delivered to users.