Excluded from essential internet services: Examining associations between digital exclusion, socio-economic resources and internet resources

In digitized welfare countries, an increasing number of services to fulfill essential needs related to finances, housing, health care, social security, and mobility have been moving from physical to internet services. Scholars, policy makers, and social practitioners are interested in monitoring who cannot use these essential internet services and, therefore, are excluded. Drawing on a media literacy perspective and capability theory, this study applies an alternative way to investigate digital exclusion or the third level of the digital divide. Using a survey administered among a sample of adults (n = 674, 57% female, Mage = 49.93, SDage = 14.44) in the Flemish region of Belgium, this study empirically examined the associations between exclusion from essential internet services, socio-economic resources, and internet resources. Overall, the study found that people living in poverty, without a secondary education, experiencing loneliness, or having a poor health status were three to five times at a greater risk of digital exclusion compared with their counterparts. This association between socio-economic resources and digital exclusion can be partially explained by the individuals' levels of internet access, skills, and use frequency. In addition, we also found that people with high socio-economic resources can still be digitally excluded, and vice versa, people with low socio-economic resources can be digitally included. Therefore, digital inclusion initiatives should avoid stereotypical targeting and must target all citizens. Furthermore, internet skills and use experience are highly important for preventing digital exclusion, but other social mechanisms that may preclude people from using essential internet services should be explored in the future.