Plasma formation in holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy

ObjectivesDuring holmium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet (holmium:YAG) laser lithotripsy to break urinary stones, urologists frequently see flashes of light. As infrared laser pulses are invisible, what is the source of light? Here we studied the origin, characteristics, and some effects of flashes of light in laser lithotripsy. MethodsUltrahigh-speed video-microscopy was used to record single laser pulses at 0.2-1.0 J energy lasered with 242 mu m glass-core-diameter fibers in contact with whole surgically retrieved urinary stones and hydroxyapatite (HA)-coated glass slides in air and water. Acoustic transients were measured with a hydrophone. Visible-light and infrared photodetectors resolved temporal profiles of visible-light emission and infrared-laser pulses. ResultsTemporal profiles of laser pulses showed intensity spikes of various duration and amplitude. The pulses were seen to produce dim light and bright sparks with submicrosecond risetime. The spark produced by the intensity spike at the beginning of laser pulse generated a shock wave in the surrounding liquid. The subsequent sparks were in a vapor bubble and generated no shock waves. Sparks enhanced absorption of laser radiation, indicative of plasma formation and optical breakdown. The occurrence and number of sparks varied even with the same urinary stone. Sparks were consistently observed at laser energy >0.5 J with HA-coated glass slides. The slides broke or cracked by cavitation with sparks in 63 +/- 15% of pulses (1.0 J, N = 60). No glass-slide breakage occurred without sparks (1.0 J, N = 500). ConclusionUnappreciated in previous studies, plasma formation with free-running long-pulse holmium:YAG lasers can be an additional physical mechanism of action in laser procedures.