How landscape characteristics in a heterogeneous oil palm plantation mitigate pest abundance: A case study from Mapirip′an, Colombia

The oil palm sector is widely known for its strong impact on biodiversity and human well-being. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) framework calls for a sustainable biodiversity management approach to oil palm plantations and thereby balancing palm oil production and biodiversity conservation. Heterogeneous agricultural landscapes, comprising different vegetation types in a complex spatial pattern, provide habitat to a variety of species and support high biodiversity. Biodiversity can thus offer pest control ecosystem services to agricultural systems. However, so far it remains unclear whether landscape structure and diversity foster or mitigate pest occurrences in plantations. Our case study is the oil palm plantation of Mapirip ' an in Colombia, which integrates local ecosystems such as secondary forests, relict old-grown forests, riparian forests, and water body remnants in between and around the palm stands of the plantation. With this nature-improved design, we pound pose pound two main questions: which landscape structural properties characterize the land-scape of the oil palm plantation?, and how do specific landscape structural properties foster or mitigate the presence of two main oil palm pests (the butterfly larvae split-banded owlet (Opsiphanes cassina) and the red weevil (Rhynchophorus palmarum))? We first characterize the plantation landscape with a multivariate cluster analysis which led us to identify up to nine different landscape structural types for the Macondo plantation. A mosaic of different landscape types ranging from homogeneous and simple landscapes to heterogeneous, diversified, and connected landscape types. Second, we performed an NMDS ordination to show similarities among the landscape structural types, land cover, and pest occurrence. Our results show that the integration of local ecosystems such as forests and water bodies improves landscape connectivity and suppresses the abundance of the two main oil palm pests.