The impact of a music enrichment program during infancy and early toddlerhood on effortful control at age 3: A preliminary investigation

Effortful control (EC), a self-regulation skill, is associated with long-term developmental outcomes. Music has been associated with infant self-regulation and may be an intervention strategy for enhancing EC during toddlerhood. This investigation included 32 parent-child dyads from a previously conducted randomized controlled trial (RCT). Participants (9-15-months old at baseline) attended either a music enrichment program or a playdate control once a week for 1 year and monthly for an additional year. At age 3, participants completed snack and gift delay effortful control tasks. Groups were compared using one-way ANOVA. We found that participants in the music group had a significantly higher score during snack delay (music mean = 3.47 +/- 0.94; control mean = 2.45 +/- 1.51; p = 0.03; Cohen's d = 0.84). We did not find a significant group difference for latency to peek (music mean = 39.10 +/- 20.10; control mean = 30.90 +/- 19.88; p = 0.25; d = 0.57) or latency to touch (music mean = 105.73 +/- 417.69; control mean = 98.35 +/- 28.84; p = 0.38; d = 0.29) for the gift task. This study provides initial evidence that early participation in a music enrichment program may benefit later development of EC. This study is registered at (NCT02936284).