The rate of environmental change as an important driver across scales in ecology

Global change has been predominantly studied from the prism of 'how much' rather than 'how fast' change occurs. Associated to this, there has been a focus on environmental drivers crossing a critical value and causing so-called regime shifts. This presupposes that the rate at which environmental conditions change is slow enough to allow the ecological entity to remain close to a stable attractor (e.g. an equilibrium). However, environmental change is occurring at unprecedented rates. Equivalently to the classical regime shifts, theory shows that a critical threshold in rates of change can exist, which can cause rate-induced tipping (R-tipping). However, the potential implications of R-tipping in ecology remain understudied. We aim to facilitate the application of R-tipping theory in ecology with the objective of identifying which properties (e.g. level of organisation) increase susceptibility to rates of change. First, we clarify the fundamental difference between tipping caused by the magnitude as opposed to the rate of change crossing a threshold. Then we present examples of R-tipping from the ecological literature and seek the ecological properties related to higher sensitivity to rates of change. Specifically, we consider the role of the level of ecological organisation, spatial processes, eco-evolutionary dynamics and pair-wise interactions in mediating or buffering rate-induced transitions. Finally, we discuss how targeted experiments can investigate the mechanisms associated to increasing rates of change. Ultimately, we seek to highlight the need to better understand how rates of environmental change may induce ecological responses and to facilitate the systematic study of rates of environmental change in the context of current global change.