Real-time measurements of non-methane volatile organic compounds in the central Indo-Gangetic basin, Lucknow, India: source characterisation and their role in O3 and secondary organic aerosol formation

Lucknow is the capital of India's largest state, Uttar Pradesh, one of South Asia's most polluted urban cities. Tropospheric photochemistry relies on non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), which are ozone and secondary organic aerosol precursors. Using the proton-transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS) at an urban background site in Lucknow, the chemical characterisation of NMVOCs was performed in real time from December 2020 to May 2021. About -173 NMVOCs from m/z 31.018 to 197.216 were measured during the study period, including aromatics, non-aromatics, oxygenates, and nitrogen-containing compounds. The campaign daily mean concentrations of the NMVOCs were 125.5 +/- 37.5 ppbv. The NMVOC daily average concentrations were about -30 % higher during the winter months (December-February) than in summer (March-May). The oxygenated volatile organic compounds and aromatics were the dominant VOC families, accounting for -57 %-80 % of the total NMVOC concentrations. Acetaldehyde, acetone, and acetic acid were the major NMVOC species, 5-15 times higher than the other species. An advanced multi-linear engine (ME-2) model was used to perform the NMVOC source apportionment using positive matrix factorisation (PMF). It resolves the five main sources contributing to these organic compounds in the atmosphere. They include traffic (23.5 %), two solid fuel combustion factors, SFC 1 (28.1 %) and SFC 2 (13.2 %), secondary volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) (18.6 %), and volatile chemical products (VCPs) (16.6 %). Aged and fresh emissions from solid fuel combustion (SFCs 1 and 2) were the dominant contributors to the total NMVOCs, and compounds related to these factors had a high secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation potential. Interestingly, the traffic factor was the second-highest contributor to the total NMVOCs, and compounds related to this factor had a high ozone formation potential. Significant differences in the composition of the two solid fuel combustions indicate the influence of local emissions and transport of regional pollution to the city. The high temperature during summer leads to more volatilisation of oxygenated VOCs, related to the VCP factor. The study is the first attempt to highlight the sources of NMVOCs and their contribution to secondary pollutant (SOA and O3) formation in the city of Lucknow during winter and summer. The insights from the study would help various stakeholders to manage primary and secondary pollutants within the city.