Genotypic and Phenotypic Characterization of Antimicrobial and Heavy Metal Tolerance in Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli Isolates from Swine Feed Mills

Antimicrobials and heavy metals are commonly used in the animal feed industry. The role of in-feed antimi-crobials on the evolution and persistence of resistance in enteric bacteria is not well described. Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) is widely used for genetic characterizations of bacterial isolates, including antimi-crobial resistance, heavy metal tolerance, virulence factors, and relatedness to other sequenced isolates. The goals of this study were to i) use WGS to characterize Salmonella enterica (n = 33) and Escherichia coli (n = 30) isolated from swine feed and feed mill environments; and ii) investigate their genotypic and pheno-typic antimicrobial and heavy metal tolerance. Salmonella isolates belonged to 10 serovars, the most common being Cubana, Senftenberg, and Tennessee. E. coli isolates were grouped into 22 O groups. Phenotypic resis-tance to at least one antimicrobial was observed in 19 Salmonella (57.6%) and 17 E. coli (56.7%) isolates, whereas multidrug resistance (resistant to & GE;3 antimicrobial classes) was observed in four Salmonella (12%) and two E. coli (7%) isolates. Antimicrobial resistance genes were identified in 17 Salmonella (51%) and 29 E. coli (97%), with 11 and 29 isolates possessing genes conferring resistance to multiple antimicrobial classes. Phenotypically, 53% Salmonella and 58% E. coli presented resistance to copper and arsenic. All isolates that possessed the copper resistance operon were resistant to the highest concentration tested (40 mM). Heavy metal tolerance genes to copper and silver were present in 26 Salmonella isolates. Our study showed a strong agreement between predicted and measured resistances when comparing genotypic and phenotypic data for antimicrobial resistance, with an overall concordance of 99% and 98.3% for Salmonella and E. coli, respectively.