Synergies and trade-offs among ecosystems functions and services for three types of lake-edge wetlands

Wetlands are the world's most important providers of ecosystem functions and services (EFS) and the most threatened ecosystems. Systematic conservation planning strategies are urgently needed to identify efficient strategies that optimize EFS provisioning in wetlands. Evaluating synergies and trade-offs among EFS indicators provides an ideal framework, as they highlight the challenges faced by conservationists. However, associations between indicators often vary across region, scale, and ecosystem type. In this study, we compared the provi-sioning of eight EFS of three types of wetlands to evaluate the influence of indicator choice and aggregation on synergies and trade-offs. We quantified 25 EFS indicators in 37 lake-edge wetlands consisting of 12 peatlands, 8 alder swamps, and 17 ash swamps. We analyzed the synergies and trade-offs among wetland types and among EFS indicators, as well as the general EFS provisioning patterns of each type using cosine similarities and multivariate analysis. We showed that wetland type strongly influences the strength and direction of associa-tions, with peatlands and ash swamps showing opposing patterns. While some EFS categories are less sensitive to indicator choice and aggregation, others, such as biodiversity, show important trade-offs. Our results revealed that synergies and trade-offs are strongly influenced by indicator choice and that protecting a diversity of wetland types is necessary to support multiple EFS categories.