Cadmium in topsoils of the European Union - An analysis based on LUCAS topsoil database

Cadmium (Cd) is a naturally occurring element that can accumulate in the soil through the application of fertilisers containing cadmium and as a waste of industrial processes. Cadmium inputs in the soil have increased significantly (+50 %) during the 20th century as a result of the application of fertilisers and sewage sludge, and also due to local contamination (e.g. waste dumping, mining) and industrial emissions (e.g. zinc smelters).Using the 21,682 soil samples from the LUCAS soil survey, we aim to estimate the spatial distribution of the concentration of Cd in the European Union (EU) and UK topsoil. Out of the total, 72.6 % of the samples have Cd values <0.07 mg kg(-1), 21.6 % in the range 0.07-1 mg kg(-1) and the remaining 5.5 % higher than the threshold of 1 mg kg(-1), which is generally considered the limit for risk assessment. The mean Cd value in the EU topsoils is 0.20 mg kg(-1), slightly higher in grasslands (0.24 mg kg(-1)) compared to croplands (0.17 mg kg(-1)).Applying an ensemble of machine learning models supported by a variety of environmental descriptors, we created maps of Cd distribution at a resolution of 100 m. The ensemble approach included five models and increased the prediction accuracy to R-2 of 0.45 (an increase of 0.1 compared to best single model performance). The approach used resulted in a high predictive power for the general Cd distribution, while also identifying hotspots of Cd contamination. Natural factors influencing Cd levels include soil properties (pH, clay), topography, soil erosion, and leaching. As anthropogenic factors, we identified phosphorus inputs to agricultural lands as the most important for Cd levels. The application of the EU Fertiliser Directive should further limit Cd inputs and potentially the Cd content in soils.