The Interplay Between Sex-Biased Parenting Attitudes and Children's Gender Nonconformity in the Psychological Adjustment of School-Age Children

Research on parental attitudes toward children's gender-related behaviors suggests that parents often treat boys and girls differently and apply varying degrees of pressure on children to conform to traditional gender norms. These pressures can negatively affect children's psychological adjustment. Compared to their cisgender peers, gender-diverse children tend to experience greater psychosocial challenges. In the present study, 1411 parents of children aged 6-12 completed questionnaires including the Italian adaptation of the Sex-Biased Parenting Scale (SB-PIQ), which assesses parental attitudes toward gender-conforming behaviors; the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children, which measures children's gender-diverse identification and behaviors; and the Child Behavior Checklist 6-18, which evaluates emotional and behavioral difficulties in children. Using a multilevel analytic approach, we examined how parental gender-stereotyped attitudes interact with children's gender-diverse identification and behaviors in predicting psychosocial outcomes. Results showed that, among boys, stronger parental gender-stereotyped attitudes intensified the association between gender-diverse identification and withdrawal behaviors. Among girls, stronger parental gender-stereotyped attitudes strengthened the relationship between engagement in male-typical behaviors and higher levels of anxiety and rule-breaking behaviors. These findings highlight the complex role of parental attitudes in shaping children's psychosocial adjustment and suggest important implications for clinical and social interventions that support gender-diverse children.