Reversal of anticoagulation in patients with intracerebral haemorrhage related to oral anticoagulants: State of the evidence

Purpose: About 20%-25% of all intracerebral haemorrhages are associated with oral anticoagulation therapy. Reflecting changings prescription patterns in the general population, the spectrum of oral anticoagulation-associated intracerebral haemorrhage has substantially changed in the last decade. In many European countries, direct oral anticoagulant-associated intracerebral haemorrhage is now more frequent than vitamin K antagonist-associated intracerebral haemorrhage. Outcome in patients with anticoagulation-associated intracerebral haemorrhage is poor, likely mediated by a high incidence of haematoma expansion. Reversal of anticoagulation is an essential part of current care pathways for hyperacute treatment of intracerebral haemorrhage aiming to limit haematoma expansion and thereby improving outcome.Methods: In this review, we summarise the latest evidence regarding reversal therapy for vitamin K antagonist-, direct thrombin inhibitor- and factor Xa inhibitor-associated intracerebral haemorrhage.Findings: Two randomised controlled trials have shown that the use of prothrombin complex concentrate (compared to fresh frozen plasma) for reversing vitamin K antagonist-associated intracerebral haemorrhage and andexanet alfa (compared to usual care, mainly prothrombin complex concentrate) for factor Xa inhibitor-associated intracerebral haemorrhage had superior haemostatic efficacy. However, the incidence of thromboembolic complications was high in both trials. For reversal of Vitamin K antagonist-associated intracerebral haemorrhage, the overall rate was 18% but due to crossovers, it is impossible to determine the rate for any specific treatment. For factor-Xa inhibitor associated intracerebral haemorrhage, andexanet alfa led to an increase in the incidence of thromboembolic events. Moreover, these two randomised controlled trials were not powered to detect differences in mortality or functional outcomes and lacked long-term follow-up. Idarucizumab has shown promising results in a single-arm case series of patients with intracerebral haemorrhage associated with the direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran, yet no randomised controlled trial is available to support these findings.Conclusion: Given that haematoma expansion is strongly associated with poor outcome, current evidence underlines the importance of rapid, targeted and effective reversal of anticoagulation in patients with anticoagulation-associated intracerebral haemorrhage. While haematoma expansion is a key prognostic factor, no randomised controlled trial has demonstrated a clear improvement in functional outcome. Future research should weigh the advantages of preventing haematoma expansion against the risks of increased thromboembolic events, and aim to identify the patients who would derive the most benefit from reversal treatments.