An improved growing season index including the maximum temperature and precipitation to predict foliar phenology of alpine grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Phenological models are valuable tools for predicting vegetation phenology and investigating the relationships between vegetation dynamics and climate. However, compared to temperate and boreal ecosystems, phenological modeling in alpine regions has received limited attention. In this study, we developed a semi-mechanistic phenological model, the Alpine Growing Season Index (AGSI), which incorporates the differential impacts of daily maximum and minimum air temperatures, as well as the constraints of precipitation and photoperiod, to predict foliar phenology in alpine grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). The AGSI model is driven by daily minimum temperature (Tmin), daily maximum temperature (Tmax), precipitation averaged over the previous month (PA), and daily photoperiod (Photo). Based on the AGSI model, we further assessed the impacts of Tmin, Tmax, PA, and Photo on modeling accuracy, and identified the predominant climatic controls over foliar phenology across the entire QTP. Results showed that the AGSI model had higher accuracy than other GSI models. The total root mean square error (RMSE) of predicted leaf onset and offset dates, when evaluated using ground observations, was 12.9 +/- 5.7 days, representing a reduction of 10.9%-54.1% compared to other models. The inclusion of Tmax and PA in the AGSI model improved the total modeling accuracy of leaf onset and offset dates by 20.2%. Overall, PA and Tmin showed more critical and extensive constraints on foliar phenology in alpine grasslands. The limiting effect of Tmax was also considerable, particularly during July-November. This study provides a simple and effective tool for predicting foliar phenology in alpine grasslands and evaluating the climatic effects on vegetation phenological development in alpine regions. (sic)(sic) (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) <label/> (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(GSI),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)--(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(AGSI).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(T-min),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(T-max),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(PA)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(Photo)4(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)AGSI(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)4(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)AGSI(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)GSI(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),AGSI(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(RMSE)(sic)12.9 +/- 5.7(sic),(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)10.9%-54.1%, (sic)(sic)T-max(sic)PA(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)20.2%.(sic)(sic)AGSI(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic),4(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)PA(sic)T-min(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)T-max(sic)7(sic)11(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).