A Comprehensive Review of Rheological Dynamics and Process Parameters in 3D Concrete Printing

Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) represents a paradigm shift in construction technology, enabling the automated, formwork-free fabrication of intricate geometries. Despite its rapid growth, successful implementation remains dependent on the precise control of material rheology and printing parameters. This review critically analyzes the foundational rheological properties of static yield stress, dynamic yield stress, plastic viscosity, and thixotropy and their influence on three core printability attributes, i.e., pumpability, extrudability, and buildability. Furthermore, it explores the role of critical process parameters, such as print speed, nozzle dimensions, layer deposition intervals, and standoff distance, in shaping interlayer bonding and structural integrity. Special emphasis is given to modeling frameworks by Suiker, Roussel, and Kruger, which provide robust tools for evaluating structural stability under plastic yield and elastic buckling conditions. The integration of these rheological and process-based insights offers a comprehensive roadmap for optimizing the performance, quality, and scalability of 3DCP.