Historical changes and driving factors of food-water-energy footprint consumption: A Case study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei city agglomeration

Food, water, and energy (FWE) are critical for the development of urban agglomerations, but research on FWE footprints at this scale remains limited. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the FWE footprints of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei metropolitan region in 2012 and 2017 at the city level. Using the multi-regional Input-Output model (MRIO) and Structural Decomposition Analysis (SDA), the study identifies the key factors driving changes in these footprints across five dimensions. The analysis evaluates both actual and virtual FWE consumption, focusing on utilization coefficients and inter-industry connections. Key findings include: (1) Agriculture in Chengde and Zhangjiakou plays a vital role in the FWE nexus and requires more attention. (2) Beijing, Tianjin, and Langfang are net inflow areas for FWE, while Tangshan and Chengde act as net outflow zones. (3) In 2017, agriculture was the largest contributor to virtual water outflows, followed by services, manufacturing, construction, energy, and mining. (4) In 2017, the virtual energy footprint was driven mainly by manufacturing and services, with strong links to the construction sector. (5) From 2012 to 2017, population size has the greatest effect on FWE footprints, while demand structure positively influences FWE growth in the construction industry. The study concludes with targeted recommendations for industrial strategies at both regional and city levels to enhance resource efficiency and promote sustainable development within the metropolitan agglomeration.